their service over forces under unified or specified commands. Therefore, the CNO’s function in opera- tional matters for unified or specified commands is as a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Joint Chiefs of Staff provides direction and guidance to the commanders of unified and specified commands. THE PRESIDENT (COMMANDER IN CHIEF) The President’s power as the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces is extensive. That power increases in war or any other national emergency. For example, the President may declare an emergency and call out the military Reserves. He may even order the armed forces into  military  action  before  Congress  actually declares war. Often a President has referred a matter to Congress after the fact. The following examples of such actions show the presidential authority and control of U.S. military forces: In 1801 President Jefferson sent naval squadrons to the Mediterranean and then informed  Congress. In 1845 President Polk deployed the Navy to the coast of Mexico to quell trouble caused by the annexation of Texas. He asked Congress to declare war on Mexico 5 months later, and Congress did. In  1862  President  Lincoln  personally assumed command of successful military operations against Confederate forces in Norfolk,  Virginia. In 1896 President McKinley ordered the naval  blockade  of  Cuba.  Congress declared war on Spain 3 days later, In 1941 President Franklin Roosevelt declared an unlimited national emergency and ordered the U.S. Navy to “sink on sight” foreign submarines found in our “defensive   waters.” In 1962 President Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine  of  Cuba  based  on  Soviet military activity on that island. In 1965 President Johnson ordered naval air  action  against  North  Vietnamese gunboats and support facilities. In 1979 President Carter ordered units of the U.S. Sixth and Seventh Fleets to the Indian Ocean to help in hostage evacuation operations  and  as  deterrents  against Iranian actions. In  1989  President  Bush  directed  U.S. forces to execute a preplanned mission (code named Operation Just Cause) in the Republic  of  Panama.  Objectives  were protection of American lives, restoration of the democratic process, protection of the integrity of the Panama Canal treaties, and apprehension of General Manuel Noriega. In 1991 President Bush sent troops into Saudi Arabia (code named Operation Desert  Shield)  to  prevent  Iraq  from extending aggression into Saudi Arabia. THE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE (DOD) The President, as the Commander in Chief, heads the military chain of command within the Department of Defense. The Commander in Chief is kept abreast of all matters affecting the ability of  the  Department  of  Defense  to  defend  the United States and its allies. The offices of the Secretary of Defense; the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and their supporting establishments (the Departments of the Army, Navy, and Air Force); and various unified and specified commands make up the DOD. The Department of Defense is the largest government agency in the United States. It spends a major portion of the national budget and employs nearly 4 million people (military and civilian). The DOD carries out the military policies of the United States. Its functions, simply stated, are to maintain and employ armed forces to accomplish the following: Support and defend the Constitution of the United States against all enemies Protect the United States, its possessions, and areas vital to its interests Advance the policies and interests of the United States Safeguard  the  internal  security  of  the United States Secretary of Defense (SECDEF) The  Secretary  of  Defense  (SECDEF)  is  a member of both the President’s Cabinet and the National Security Council. In that capacity, the SECDEF  exercises  “direction,  authority,  and control over the Department of Defense.” The Secretary of Defense, by virtue of an Executive order, has responsibility for all the President’s 1-4