VIETNAM

On August 12, 1958, the USS Nautilus completed a history-making transpolar voyage from Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, to Portland, England. After diving under the ice near Point Barrow, Alaska, on August 1, 1958, it became the first submarine to reach the geographic North Pole. Nuclear submarines produced after the USS Nautilus continued to pioneer new areas of submarine operations. The USS Seawolf, the Navy’s second nuclear-powered submarine, operated as an active unit of the Atlantic Fleet. On October 6, 1958, it completed a record-breaking 60-day run, traveling a distance of 13,761 miles submerged. While the USS Nautilus was still undergoing operational testing, the Navy began development of a ballistic missile of intermediate range. Brought from conception to initial operation in 5 years’time, the Polaris fleet ballistic missile (FBM) weapons system was mated with nuclear propulsion. That development produced a virtually invulnerable missile-firing submarine. Today, the missile-firing submarine constitutes one of the highest priority elements of the United States’ deterrent capability; that is, a deterrent to nuclear conflict. Each Polaris submarine could launch 16 two-stage ballistic missiles powered by solid-fuel rocket motors, containing a self-contained inertial guidance system. The Polaris provided a combined explosive power greater than the total of all the bombs dropped by all aircraft during World War II. Nuclear propulsion enabled these Polaris submarines to remain on patrol for extended periods, hidden beneath the surface of the sea, ready to launch their missiles. On station, a Polaris submarine maintained complete radio silence, receiving radio messages while submerged, but not transmitting to prevent giving away its location. Each ship had two complete crews, the Blue and the Gold, of about 130 people each. The Polaris operated on a system that reflected a major change in the Navy’s traditional ship-manning methods. The crews alternated on approximately 3-month-long deployments, providing maximum on-station time for the submarine. Its endurance was limited only by the limitations of its personnel. Submarines were followed by the world’s first nuclear-powered surface warships. They were the guided-missile cruiser USS Bainbridge, launched April 15, 1961; the guided-missile cruiser USS Long Beach, commissioned September 9, 1961; and the carrier USS Enterprise, commissioned November 25, 1961. On October 3, 1964, those three ships ended Operation Sea Orbit, a 64-day long, around-the-world, unreplenished cruise. It was during this time that space exploration (fig. 5-15) began. The Vanguard, a 3 1/2-pound payload, was developed by the Naval Research Laboratory. On March 17, 1958, it was placed into orbit to test a system designed to launch earth satellites during the international geophysical year (IGY). Now the oldest man-made satellite in orbit, it is expected to remain aloft for 2,000 years. Naval officers also participated in space exploration. On May 5, 1961, Commander Alan B. Shepard, Jr., made America’s first suborbital flight. The 15-minute shot in Freedom 7 went 116.5 miles into space. VIETNAM Although the United States was at peace following the Korean Conflict, events were building that would plunge the country into another conflict. Since 1959, the French had been involved in fighting in a country most Americans had never heard of—Vietnam. 5-22 Student Notes: Figure 5-15.—Seven original NASA astronauts.