during surface action. However, they normally use such forces only as one element in a coordinated strike by both air and surface units. Commanders detach surface action groups in special situations; for example, to destroy isolated or crippled enemy surface units, to conduct shore bombardment, or for surface reconnaissance missions. Normally, though, aircraft are the principal agents for tactical reconnaissance. Air action usually takes place before a surface engagement or occurs during the engagement. An air strike before a surface engagement may surprise the enemy forces to such an extent that the surface action becomes a pursuit of dis- organized enemy forces. It may also slow enemy forces so that the task force or battle group can engage enemy forces with surface-to-surface fire or missiles outside the enemy surface missile envelope. Task force or group commanders may also use aircraft for spotting gunfire and ship- launched missiles. Figure 1-3 shows a surface action group. AMPHIBIOUS  FORCES Amphibious operations conducted to establish a landing force on a hostile shore achieves several purposes. First, they allow our forces to pursue further combat operations. Second, they allow our forces to obtain a site for an advanced naval or air base. And third, they deny the use of an area or facilities to the enemy. AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE has special signi- ficance for every person in the Navy. It integrates nearly all types of ships, aircraft, weapons, and landing forces in a concerted military effort against a hostile shore. The ability to conduct amphibious operations effectively is a measure of a nation’s competence in applying the elements of sea power and air power in a coordinated effort. A nation’s competence in applying sea power and air power in a coordinated effort serves as a measure of its ability to conduct effective amphibious  operations. The usefulness of the amphibious operation stems from the mobility and flexibility of its forces; that is, the ability to concentrate balanced forces and to strike with great strength at selected points  in  the  hostile  defense  system.  An amphibious operation uses the element of surprise and capitalizes upon enemy weaknesses. The mere threat imposed by the existence of powerful amphibious forces may convince the enemy to spread out concentrated forces. This may result in expensive and wasteful efforts by the enemy in defending the country’s coastline. Amphibious assaults must be conducted in the face of certain additional and special difficulties. Natural forces, such as unfavorable weather, seas, and surf, represent hazards not normally encountered in land warfare. Ships encounter many  logistics  problems.  They  must  load thousands of troops and large quantities of material so that they can be unloaded in the proper sequence. They then must move these troops and materials to the objective area and land them on open beaches or landing zones, which may be under enemy fire. All such problems require special attention to detailed planning. The closest cooperation and most detailed coordination among all forces taking part in an amphibious operation are essential to success. The forces must be trained together. Each force must have a clear understanding of its mutual obliga- tions, special capabilities, and problems. Amphibious striking forces normally include Navy and Marine Corps forces but may include personnel from every service of the armed forces. These  forces  are  integrated  into  a  task organization to form a single cohesive amphibious striking force capable of executing its mission with utmost efficiency. The keynote of successful amphibious operations is the complete coordina- tion and unity of effort among all the participating elements of land, sea, and air forces. This coordination and unity achieved successes in the conduct of amphibious operations during World War II, the Korean conflict, and the Vietnam conflict. These successes are direct results of the close relationships developed among our armed forces. NAVAL WARFARE NAVAL WARFARE is a conflict in which at least one of the opponents is operating from the sea with surface ships, submarines, or sea-based aircraft. Naval warfare involves three major areas: SURFACE, SUBSURFACE, and AIR. Each of these areas has its own operating characteristics, and each has its own particular strengths and limitations. The art of naval warfare entails a nation’s use of surface, submarine, and air forces in a manner that exploits the strengths and minimizes the weaknesses of each. This objective has led to surface, submarine, and air forces operating together in mutual support. Their common objective is to gain advantages over the enemy by working together to improve offensive capabilities 1-9